George Montandon

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George-Alexis Montandon (19 April 1879 – August 1944) was a French-Swiss physician, anthropologist and explorer.[1]

Biography

Family

George Montandon was born at Cortaillod in the Canton of Neuchâtel, the son of James Montandon, an industrialist, and Cornélie Philippine Catherine (née Rehfuss). The Montandon-Blaiselion family of Le Locle, originally from Montbéliard, had fled France in 1310 to settle in Switzerland in Neuchâtel, where their coat of arms was "azure, an anchor argent, between two golden stars". His father James, from La Brévine, born in 1846, was a town councillor in Colombier in 1888, then a member of the Grand Council of the Canton of Neuchâtel in 1889, an office he still held in 1895. He was also a member of the Board of Directors and the Conseil d'escompte of the Banque cantonale neuchâteloise in 1905.

Early life and education

George Montandon, the youngest of four children, studied medicine at the University of Geneva, then at the University of Zurich where — from 1906 to 1908 —, he practiced surgery at the university clinic. After his military service, he developed a passion for anthropology. He went to Hamburg, then London, and decided to become an explorer. In October 1909, at the age of thirty, he set sail from Marseille for Ethiopia, which he visited in 1910.

On his return from Ethiopia, he settled as a doctor in Renens (Vaud). In 1914, Montandon volunteered at a French hospital in Bourg-en-Bresse, where he put his surgical training into practice, before returning to Switzerland in 1916. In 1919, he studied the genealogy of musical instruments and "civilization cycles" at the Geneva Ethnography Museum.

Attraction to Communism and the Soviet Union

Attracted by the Bolshevik revolution of 1917, Montandon went to the Soviet Union in 1919, commissioned by the Red Cross to organize the repatriation via Vladivostok of Austrian prisoners of war held in Siberia.[2] He took the opportunity to study the last Ainu on Sakhalin Island and the Buryats of Lake Baikal.[lower-alpha 1] In Vladivostok, he married a 22-year-old Russian Communist, Maria Konstantinovna Zviaguina, and had three children with her.[lower-alpha 2]

In 1921, the Council of State of Neuchâtel refused — officially for economic reasons, but more likely for political ones[3] — to ratify his appointment as Professor of Ethnology at the University of Neuchâtel. Montandon, who had returned to Switzerland, supported the Bolshevik revolution and had become a member of the Swiss Communist Party. In Deux ans chez Koltchak et chez les bolcheviks (Two years with Koltchak and the Bolsheviks), published in 1923, he noted the creation of a political police force, the Cheka, but was also one of the first to describe its abuses. Rumors accused him of receiving money from the Soviet secret service. He denounced slavery in Abyssinia and the genocide of Indians in the United States.

Life in France

In 1925, he moved to Paris, where he worked at the National Museum of Natural History, and wrote for the Communist magazine Clarté, directed by Henri Barbusse.

In 1929, Montandon published Human Ologenesis, a new theory of evolution, a well-received work. In 1931, he joined the School of Anthropology. In 1933, he took up the chair of ethnology and published The Race, the Races.[lower-alpha 3]

He was naturalized as a French citizen with his wife and three children by decree on May 29, 1936, published in the Journal Officiel on June 7, 1936.

Appointed curator of the Broca Museum in 1936, and disillusioned by the Popular Front, he turned to political anti-Judaism, corresponding with Henri-Robert Petit, Léon de Poncins and Armand Bernardini among others. Céline's Bagatelles pour un massacre was clearly influenced by Montandon's work, which is even quoted in L'École des cadavres.[lower-alpha 4] Montandon also justified Céline's "ethno-racism" in terms of "Jewish ethno-racism".[lower-alpha 5]

World War II

Montandon was appointed Chairman of the Ethnic Commission of Jacques Doriot's French Popular Party (PPF) and contributed to Alphonse de Châteaubriant's La Gerbe.

When Vichy reopened the naturalization process, Montandon lost both his French nationality and his job at the School of Anthropology. However, on July 27, 1941, a decree reinstated his condition as a French citizen. From December 1941, he was attached to the Commissioner for Jewish Affairs as an ethnologist. In this capacity, for a fee, he issued certificates of non-membership of the Jewish race.[lower-alpha 6]

During the German occupation of France, Montandon worked at the Commissariat-General for Jewish Affairs to carry out "racial visits", the conclusions of which were sent to the authorities. When in doubt about certain internees at the Drancy internment camp, Montandon travelled at the request of the authorities to carry out "anthropometric examinations", at the end of which he may or may not issue a "certificate of membership of the Jewish race", valid for deportation or release. Whatever the outcome, the consultation was billed at 300, then 400 francs, excluding travel expenses.[lower-alpha 7]

On March 1, 1944, Combat médical,[lower-alpha 8] the physicians' organ of the "National Movement Against Racism", devoted two of the four pages of its first issue to George Montandon, under the title "Portrait de traître: le Docteur Georges (sic) Montandon" ("Portrait of a traitor: Doctor Georges (sic) Montandon"). No. 25 of the June issue of Le Médecin français,[lower-alpha 9] under the heading "Éditeurs pro-nazis" (Pro-Nazi publishers), expressed indignation at the publication the previous year by Librairie Masson of Otmar von Verschuer's Handbook of Eugenics and Human Heredity, translated by Montandon, described as a "dubious ethnologist, notorious pro-Nazi, venal expert of the Commissariat for Jewish Affairs" who would be "expelled from French nationality and expiated in prison for his frauds and intellectual dishonesty". The article also denounced the publisher: Masson "became the bookshop of the Institute for the Study of Jewish Questions, and will suffer the punishment demanded by the CNÉ for servile or greedy publishers". Montandon was attacked by the Resistance on August 3, 1944, but Georges Masson (1900–1973) was never arrested.

On September 9 of the same year, Les Lettres Françaises published on the front page of its first public issue a "Manifesto of French Writers", signed by sixty-five writers, journalists and publishers, calling for "the just punishment of impostors and traitors". From this date onwards, Montandon appeared on all the CNÉ's blacklists, including those of the following September 16 and October 21; his book How do you recognize a Jew?, appeared on the 1945 ban lists issued by the Ministry of War, and was used as evidence against the publisher Denoël at his trial on July 13, 1945 and that of his company on April 30, 1948, both of which resulted in acquittals, while Montandon was convicted and his book withdrawn from sale.[lower-alpha 10]

Two versions of Montandon's death

Montandon's house in Clamart was taken over by Resistance assassins on August 3, 1944.[9] His wife was killed, and Montandon is also believed to have died at the time.

However, according to Céline, and confirmed by research carried out by Marc Knobel in the 1990s,[10] Montandon was only wounded and transported first to the Lariboisière Hospital, which was then under German administration, and then to Germany, where he died on August 30 at the Karl-Weinrich-Krankenhaus hospital in Fulda, possibly as a result of cancer in addition to the wounds received in Clamart.[lower-alpha 11]

Research

Jean Poirier wrote in his General Ethnology (1968):

Montandon contributed effectively to the spread in France of diffusionist theses, which opposed certain excesses of evolutionism. [...] Montandon was an excellent ethnographer, and one of the first to make systematic use of geographical distribution diagrams for different cultural facts (a method that requires an enormous amount of analytical work, and which — perhaps for this reason — is not used often enough today).[12]

In his History of Ethnological Theory (1937), Robert Lowie had extensively discussed Montandon's contribution to the field.[13] In the introduction to his book The Ethnology, Jean Servier described Montandon's The Race, the Races as a "useful working tool" and an "ethnological dictionary avant la lettre".[14]

Contribution to knowledge of Ethiopia

Montandon arrived in Addis Ababa from Djibouti at the end of 1909, and in 1910 visited the Omo, Jimma, Kaffa, Ghimirra, Gurafarda and Yambo regions, before returning to the Ethiopian capital via Goré, Guma and Gomma.

On his return to Switzerland, he settled in Renens and published the account of his journey. In the preface, dated December 1912, he says: "The purpose of the journey described in the following pages was to visit the provinces of the South-West; without being entrusted with a mission by anyone, our sole desire to realize the dreams of our youth led us to organize and carry it out". This preparation is summarized in a 1:3,000,000 scale map, entitled "Explorers' routes in SW Ethiopia (between the lakes and the Baro) in chronological order", which illustrates the itineraries of twenty-eight explorers. The detailed descriptions, illustrated with photographs, diagrams and maps cover every aspect of life in the southwestern provinces. Montandon brings together a wealth of concise information on subjects such as housing, currency, slavery, the Oromos, religions, agriculture, domestic utensils, musical instruments and games.

This travelogue forms Volume XXII of the Bulletin de la Société Neuchâteloise de Géographie and was published in 1913 by the Neuchâtel publisher Attinger and simultaneously by Challamel in Paris. It has 424 pages, with 202 illustrations, 14 maps and plates. It was awarded a prize by the Geography Society of Paris. For Rita and Richard Pankhurst, Montandon's story is at the forefront of those of this period.[15]

One of his daughters, Irène-Marie, later married Saharan explorer Henri Lhote.

Race theorist

In his book The Race, the Races (1933), Montandon proposed a taxonomy of the races[lower-alpha 12] which divided the human species into five "great races", themselves divided into "races", then into "sub-races" and "somatic groups":

  • Pygmy grand-race: (pp. 122–36)
    • Steatopygian race
    • Pygmy race
  • Negroid grand race: (pp. 137–77)
    • Tasmanian race
    • Papuan race
    • Nigritian (Negro) race
      • Nilocharian Negro sub-race
      • South African Negro sub-race
      • Sudanian Negro sub-race
    • Ethiopian race
    • Dravidian race
  • Vedd-australoid grand race: (pp. 178–84)
    • Veddian race
    • Australian race
  • Mongoloid grand race: (pp. 185–36)
    • Paleo-Amerindian race
    • Neo-Amerindian race
    • Eskimo race
    • Paleo-Siberian race
    • Mongoloid race
      • Tungus sub-race
      • North Mongolian subrace
        • Mongolian somatic group
        • Korean somatic group
        • Ghiliak-Aleut somatic group
        • Saiano-Samoyed somatic group
      • Sino subrace
      • Parean sub-race
        • Japanese somatic group
    • Turanian race
  • Europoid grand race: (pp. 237–69)
    • Laponian race
    • Ainian breed
    • Blonde breed
      • Nordic sub-race
      • Sub-Nordic sub-race
    • Alp-Armenian breed
      • Alpine subrace (Celtic, Cevenol, Western, Alpo-Carpathian)
      • Adriatic subrace (Dinaric, Illyrian)
      • Anatolian subrace (Eurasian, Armenoid, Assyroid)
      • Pamirian subrace (Iranian)
    • Brown race (Mediterranean)
      • Iberian-insular subrace
      • Berber subrace
      • Arabian subrace
      • Indo-Afghan sub-race
      • Indonesian sub-race
      • Malay subrace
      • Polynesian sub-race

This work proposes a zoological and somatic typology of race, similar to that of Georges Vacher de Lapouge. Pierre-André Taguieff suggested calling this form of racism "racialism",[17] which defines race on the basis of individuals' somatic characteristics rather than biological descent.[18]

In defining the meaning he gives to the word race, Montandon writes: "For anthropologists, the word race designates a group of men who are related solely by their physical characteristics, i.e. anatomical and physiological, in other words by their somatic characters". Concerning the Jews, Montandon writes: "Today, the Jews are above all an ethnic group, a social group, not a uniform race. But wherever they are found, they constitute somatic groups whose individuals are frequently discernible. Depending on the region, these somatic groups can be attached to one race or another [...]". With regard to the French, he specifies: "the French form not a race, but an ethnic group: 'the French ethnic group'".

The French ethnic group

In 1935, he published L'Ethnie française. In the foreword, he writes: "To speak of a French race is not to know what a race is. There is no French race. There is a French ethnic group, into whose somatic constitution enter the elements of several races". He defines the French ethnic group as a multiracial ethnic group characterized by a language and a culture. He devotes a chapter to the Arabs and Berbers of North Africa, believing that although the majority of these people do not yet form part of the French ethnic group, it is in this region "that a fraction of the French ethnic group is destined to develop, and this fraction will probably be even larger tomorrow than it is today."

Montandon subdivides "French ethnicity" into various types: Nordic, Alpine, Dinaric, Mediterranean, with certain allogeneic components (Judaic, Negroid, Mongoloid). He includes photos of Henri Barbusse, François Mauriac and Pierre Benoit to illustrate his point, and presents Benjamin Crémieux as an illustration of the "Judaic type with Mediterranean affinities", or the politician Léon Blum as an illustration of the "Judaic type with Alpine-Armenian affinities". Once again, ethnicity is defined on the basis of somatic considerations.

Writings on the Jews

On December 15, 1926, L'Humanité published an article by Montandon, under the pseudonym "Montardit", entitled "L'origine des types juifs" ("The origin of Jewish types").

After his first ethnological works in the 1930s, in November 1935 he published an article on the Jews in the Italian magazine La Difesa della Razza (The Defense of the Race), entitled "L'Etnia putana" (The Whore Ethnic Group), an expression he was to use frequently. In the April 1939 issue of Contre-Révolution, he published an article entitled "La Solution ethno-raciale du problème juif" (The ethno-racial solution to the Jewish problem), in which he asserted: "This fierce integrity of Semitic blood makes the Jews the first ethno-racists to date". In the same article, he advocated the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine "of which the Jews would be nationals, living in other states only as foreigners, with passports and all that goes with them".[lower-alpha 13]

Montandon was opposed to Charles Maurras and his state-sponsored anti-Judaism: in fact, he suspected Maurras of being of Marrano descent, whereas in 1935 he had originally classified him as a "Mediterranean coastal type — crossroads of several types".[lower-alpha 14]

On July 2, 1940, in La France au travail, Charles Dieudonné's publication, he wrote: "In addition to its own faults, the French nation has been poisoned by the spirit of the ethnic whore. What psychologically characterizes the Jewish ethnic community, and legitimizes the scientific name by which we designate it, is not only its lust, but above all the fact that this community, instead of serving a homeland, a country, places itself, like a public daughter, at the service of all countries, while having refused for two thousand years to merge with the population of these countries. This is the spirit of the ethnic whore, which, imposing itself on the French: a) bleated peace, b) sabotaged armaments, c) and above all, for decades, disgusted women with motherhood, thanks to its press in particular, of which the old Paris-soir, known as the "Pourrissoir", with its quasi-pornographic columns, directed by Jewish whores, whose names we know, was the accomplished model".

In his introductory lecture at the inauguration of the Institute for the Study of Jewish and Ethnoracial Questions, published in May 1943, he listed several possible solutions to the Jewish question, including segregation, assimilation, expulsion and emancipation, all of which he described as having failed, concluding with extermination:

What, for the rest of us, is the normal solution applied to the problem posed by a band of gangsters [the Jews]? Only one: extirpation. You realize, then, that the social conception we have envisaged of the Jewish community would legitimize in advance all measures, up to and including the death of the herd, aimed at ensuring the total elimination of the rogue association from our Western countries.[19]

Works

Major publications

  • Au pays Ghimirra: récit de mon voyage à travers le massif éthiopien (1909-1911) (1913)
  • La généalogie des instruments de musique et les cycles de civilisation (1919)
  • L'esclavage en Abyssinie: rapport rédigé à la demande de la Ligue suisse pour la défense des indigènes (1923)
  • Deux ans chez Koltchak et chez les Bolchéviques pour la Croix-Rouge de Genève (1919-1921) (1923)
  • Aïnou, Japonais, Bouriates (1927; 2 volumes)
  • L'Ologénèse humaine (1928)
  • La race, les races. Mise au point d'ethnologie somatique (1933)
  • L'Ologenèse culturelle, traité d'ethnologie (1934)
  • L'Ethnie française (1935)
  • La civilisation Aïnou et les cultures arctiques (1937)
  • Comment reconnaître le Juif? (1940)
  • Les Juifs en France (1940)
  • L'homme préhistorique et les préhumains (1943)

Notes

Footnotes

  1. ↑ Two studies, in 1926 and 1927: "Chez les Bouriates de la Transbaïkalie" and "Crâniologue paléosibérienne", in which he discusses the Chukchi, Eskimo, Aleut, Ainu and Gilyak people. Inspired by the Italian scientific school, Montandon adapts the system of ologenesis to anthropology, separating the concept of race from the idea of ethnicity: the idea of a race common to all men at the outset, gradually differentiating into ethnic groups and moving towards their individuality.
  2. ↑ Irène-Marie, born April 27, 1922 in Lausanne; Odile-Violette-Lucie, born May 17, 1923 in Lausanne; and George-James-Raoul, born June 28, 1927 in Paris.
  3. ↑ In 1965, Georges Olivier, Professor of Anthropology at the Faculty of Science and Professor of Anatomy at the Faculty of Medicine in Paris, still presented Montandon's classification of races as a reference in his book Morphology and Human Types.
  4. ↑ Montandon was posthumously praised in Celine's 1952 novel Fable for Another Time.[4]
  5. ↑ In November 1940, Montandon inaugurated the "The Jews in France" collection at Denoël, Céline's publisher at Nouvelles Éditions françaises, with the publication of How do you recognize a Jew? This booklet featured quotations from Louis-Ferdinand Céline, Édouard Drumont, Guy de Maupassant, Jules Michelet, Frédéric Mistral, Ernest Renan, Adolphe Thiers, Voltaire and Émile Zola. His work helped set up the exhibition The Jew and France. In July 1940, he became director of the magazine L'Ethnie française, financed by the German Institute of Paris, then by the Commissioner for Jewish Affairs, Darquier de Pellepoix. He also published articles on Jewish ethnicity.
  6. ↑ In 1942, Xavier Vallat was replaced by Louis Darquier de Pellepoix at the Commissariat-General for Jewish Affairs. The Institute for the Study of Jewish Questions (IEQJ), initially entrusted to Captain Sézille to organize the German exhibition The Jew and France and primarily intended for the "economic Aryanization" of the country ("administering Jewish assets and exposing cover-ups"), was dissolved. In 1943, the IEQJ was renamed the Institute for the Study of Jewish and Ethnoracial Questions (IEQJR), with George Montandon in charge of the "ethnoraciologie judaïque" course. Among the institute's instructors were Armand Bernardini, Claude Vacher de Lapouge (son of Georges) and Jean Héritier, a journalist with Le Pilori.[5] Montandon distributed his translation, intended for medical students, of the Handbook of Eugenics and Human Heredity by Otmar von Verschuer, head of the Institute of Anthropology in Berlin.
  7. ↑ Called to the camp to examine Leonid and Maria Kaganowicz, arrested at the Spanish border in March 1943, Montandon described the man as follows: "General facial expression: antero-Asiatic type, easily interpretable as Judeo-Angaeo-Asiatic. Mimicry and demeanor: unmistakably Judaic". The couple were deported in July 1943.[6]
  8. ↑ Underground journal founded in 1942 by the FTP-MOI.[7]
  9. ↑ Another clandestine journal, founded in 1941 by the Communists Maurice Ténine and Jean-Claude Bauer.[7]
  10. ↑ Writers whose books published by Denoël appeared on the 1945 ban lists issued by the French War Ministry: Charles-Albert, L’Angleterre contre l’Europe (1941); Louis-Ferdinand Céline, Bagatelles pour un massacre (1937), L’Ecole des cadavres (1938), Les Beaux Draps (1941) and Guignol's Band (1944); Adolf Hitler, Discours (1941); Georges Montandon, Comment reconnaître le juif? (1940); Lucien Pemjean, La Presse et les juifs (1941); Fernand Querrioux, La Médecine et les juifs (1940); Lucien Rebatet, Les Tribus du cinéma et du théâtre (1941) and Les Décombres (1942).[8]
  11. ↑ See his German death certificate online.[11]
  12. ↑ Georges Olivier, Professor of Anthropology at the Faculty of Science and Professor of Anatomy at the Faculty of Medicine in Paris, presented this theory again in 1971.[16]
  13. ↑ In the end, this was the solution chosen after the Second World War, with the creation of the State of Israel by the UN in Palestine.
  14. ↑ This was also the thesis of the journalist Urbain Gohier.

Citations

  1. ↑ Ritler, Alfons (2007). Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, Vol. 3: He-N. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, p. 1009.
  2. ↑ Montandon, George (1921). "Mission en Sibérie," International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. III, No. 36, pp. 1197–1232.
  3. ↑ Centlivres, Pierre (2000). "L'Ethnologie a L'Universite de Neuchatel: 1912–1964," 'Université de Neuchâtel.
  4. ↑ Scullion, Rosemarie (1998). "Writing and Resistance in Louis-Ferdinand Céline's "Féerie pour une autre fois I"," L'Esprit Créateur, Vol. XXXVIII, No. 3, pp. 28–39.
  5. ↑ Weinreich, Max (2013). Hitler et les professeurs. Paris: Belles Lettres, p. 196.
  6. ↑ Wieviorka, Annette; Michel Lafitte (2012). A l'intérieur du camp de Drancy. Paris: Perrin, pp. 212–13.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Withuis, Jolande; Annet Mooij (2010). The Politics of War Trauma: The Aftermath of World War II in Eleven European Countries. Amsterdam: Aksant, p. 90.
  8. ↑ Henri Thyssens, "Listes Noires," Robert Denoël Éditeur.
  9. ↑ Coston, Henry (1972). "Un commando de résistants, vraisemblablement israélites." In: Dictionnaire de la politique française, Vol. 2. Paris: Publications H.C., p. 200.
  10. ↑ Knobel (1999).
  11. ↑ Henri Thyssens, "1944, Août," Robert Denoël Éditeur.
  12. ↑ Poirier, Jean (1968). Ethnologie Générale, Encyclopédie de la Pléiade. Paris: Gallimard.
  13. ↑ Lowie, Robert H. (1937). The History of Ethnological Theory. New York: Farrar & Rinehart, pp. 185–87.
  14. ↑ Servier, Jean (1986). L’Ethnologie. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
  15. ↑ Pankhurst, Richard (1978). "A Selected Annotated Bibliography of Travel Books on Ethiopia," Africana Journal, Vol. IX, No. 2, pp. 113–33.
  16. ↑ Olivier, Georges (1961). Morphologie et Types Humains, Cours Préparatoire au Diplôme de Masseur-Kinésithérapeute. Paris: Vigot Frères.
  17. ↑ Taguieff, Pierre-André (1998). Le Racisme. Un exposé pour comprendre, un essai pour réfléchir. Paris: Flammarion.
  18. ↑ Morning, Ann (2011). The Nature of Race. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  19. ↑ Montandon, George (avril-mai 1943). "La Question juive en France et dans le monde," La Question juive en France et dans le monde, No. 9,‎ pp. 3–14.

References

Centlivres, Pierre (2009). A seconde vue. Thèmes en anthropologie. Gollion: Infolio.
Chevassus-au-Louis, Nicola (2004). Savants sous l'Occupation. Enquête sur la vie scientifique entre 1940 et 1944. Paris: Seuil.
Conklin, Alice (2013). In the Museum of Man: Race, Anthropology, and Empire in France, 1850–1950. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.
Epstein, Simon (2001). Les Dreyfusards sous l'Occupation. Paris: Albin Michel.
Fabre, Daniel (1999). "Réponse à Régis Meyran," L'Homme, No. 150, pp. 213–16.
Germann, Pascal (2016). Laboratorien der Vererbung: Rassenforschung und Humangenetik in der Schweiz, 1900-1970. Göttingen: Wallstein.
Knobel, Marc (1988). "L'ethnologue à la dérive. George Montandon et l'ethnoracisme in Ethnologie française," Ethnologie et racismes, Vol. XVIII, No. 2, pp. 107–13.
Knobel, Marc (1999). "George Montandon et l'ethno-racisme." In: Pierre-André Taguieff, L'Antisémitisme de plume, 1940-1944. Paris: Berg International, pp. 277–93.
Laplace, Yves (2020). L'Exécrable. Paris: Fayard.
Meyran, Régis (1990). "Écrits, pratiques et faits. L'ethnologie sous le régime de Vichy," L'Homme, Vol. XXXIX, No. 150, pp. 203–12.
Ory, Pascal (1980). Les collaborateurs: 1940-1945. Paris: Éditions du Seuil.
Piana, Francesca (2016). "The Dangers of 'Going Native': George Montandon in Siberia and the International Committee of the Red Cross, 1919–1922," Contemporary European History, Vol. XXV, No. 2, pp. 253–74.
Ritler, Alfons (2005). "Der Neuenburger Arzt George Montandon (1879-1944) und sein Reisebericht von 1913 über Äthiopien." In: Sécurité sociale et développement, Soziale Sicherheit und Entwicklung. Münster: LIT-Verlag.
Siegenthaler, Susanne (2005). George Montandon - Rassist oder Anthropologe? Eine Analyse anhand seines Werkes „Au pays Ghimirra“. Bern: Historisches Institut Universität Bern.
Staum, Martin S. (2011). Nature and Nurture in French Social Sciences, 1859-1914 and Beyond. Montréal: McGill-Queen's University Press.

External links

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