Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. Proto-Indo-Iranian or Proto-Indo-Iranic[1] is the reconstructed proto-language of the Indo-Iranian/Indo-Iranic branch of Indo-European. Its speakers, the hypothetical Proto-Indo-Iranians, are assumed to have lived in the late 3rd millennium BC, and are often connected with the early Andronovo archaeological horizon.
Proto-Indo-Iranian was a Satem language, likely removed less than a millennium from the late Proto-Indo-European language, and in turn removed less than a millennium from the Vedic Sanskrit of the Rigveda. It is the ancestor of the Indo-Aryan languages, the Iranian languages, and the Nuristani languages.
Descriptive phonology
PII vowel segments
| High |
*i *ī *u *ū |
| Low |
*a *ā |
In addition to the vowels, *H, and *r̥ could function as the syllabic core.
Two palatal series
Proto-Indo-Iranian is hypothesized to contain two series of stops or affricates in the palatal to postalveolar region.[2] The phonetic nature of this contrast is not clear, and hence they are usually referred to as the "primary"/"first" series (*ĉ *ĵ *ĵʰ, continuing Proto-Indo-European palatovelar *ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ) and the "second(ary)" series (*č *ǰ *ǰʰ, continuing Proto-Indo-European plain and labialized velars *k⁽ʷ⁾ *g⁽ʷ⁾ *gʰ⁽ʷ⁾ in palatalizing contexts). The following table shows the most common reflexes of the two series (Proto-Iranian is the hypothetical ancestor to the Iranian languages, including Avestan and Old Persian):[3][4]
| PII |
Sanskrit |
Proto-Iranian |
Avestan |
Old Persian |
Nuristani |
| *ĉ |
ś ([ɕ]) |
*ts |
s |
θ |
ċ ([ts]) / š |
| *ĵ |
j ([ɟ]) |
*dz |
z |
d |
j ([dz]) / z |
| *ĵʰ |
h ([ɦ]) |
| *č |
c |
*č |
č |
č |
č |
| *ǰ |
j ([ɟ]) |
*ǰ |
ǰ |
ǰ |
ǰ / ž |
| *ǰʰ |
h ([ɦ]) |
Laryngeal
Proto-Indo-European is usually hypothesized to have had three to four laryngeal consonants, each of which could occur in either syllabic or non-syllabic position. In Proto-Indo-Iranian, the laryngeals merged as one phoneme /*H/. Beekes suggests that some instances of this /*H/ survived into Avestan as unwritten glottal stops.[5]
Accent
Like Proto-Indo-European and Vedic Sanskrit (and also Avestan, though it was not written down[6]), Proto-Indo-Iranian had a pitch accent, indicated by an acute accent over the accented vowel.
Historical phonology
The most distinctive phonological change separating Proto-Indo-Iranian from Proto-Indo-European is the collapse of the ablauting vowels *e, *o, *a into a single vowel, Proto-Indo-Iranian *a (but see Brugmann's law). Grassmann's law, Bartholomae's law, and the Ruki sound law were also complete in Proto-Indo-Iranian.
A fuller list of some of the hypothesized sound changes from Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Indo-Iranian follows:
- The Satem shift, consisting of two sets of related changes. The PIE palatals *k̂ *ĝ *ĝʰ are fronted or affricated, eventually resulting in PII *ĉ, *ĵ, *ĵʰ, while the PIE labiovelars *kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ merge with the velars *k *g *gʰ.[7]
| PIE |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
Latin |
|
| *k̂m̥tóm |
*ĉatám |
śatám |
satəm |
centum |
"hundred" |
| *ĝónu |
*ĵā́nu |
jā́nu |
zānu |
genu |
"knee" |
| *ĝʰéi-mn̥ |
*ĵʰimá- |
himá- |
zima- |
hiems |
"winter" / "snow" |
| *kʷó- |
*ká- |
ká- |
kō |
quis |
"who?, what?" |
| *gʷou- |
*gau- |
go |
gau- |
bos, bovis |
"cow" |
| *gʷʰormó- |
*gʰarmá- |
gharmá- |
garəma- |
formus |
"warmth, heat" |
- The PIE syllabic liquids *l̥, *r̥ merge as *r̥.[8]
| PIE |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
Latin |
|
| *wĺ̥kʷo- |
*wŕ̥ka- |
*vŕ̥ka- |
vəhrka- |
lupus |
"wolf" |
- The PIE syllabic nasals *m̥ *n̥ merge with *a.[8]
| PIE |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
Latin |
|
| *k̂m̥tóm |
*ĉatám |
śatám |
satəm |
centum |
"hundred" |
| *mn̥tó- |
*matá |
matá- |
|
mens, mentis |
"thinking" |
- Bartholomae's law: an aspirate immediately followed by a voiceless consonant becomes voiced stop + voiced aspirate. In addition, dʰ + t > dzdʰ.[9]
| PIE |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
|
| *ubʰto- |
*ubdʰa- |
|
ubdaēna |
"woven" / "made of woven material" |
| *urdʰto- |
*urdzdʰa- |
vr̥ddʰá- |
vrzda- |
"complete/mature" |
| *augʰ-tá- |
*augdʰá- |
*óhate |
*augda |
"he said" |
- The Ruki rule: *s is retracted to *š when immediately following *r *r̥ *u *k or *i. Its allophone *z likewise becomes *ž.[8]
| PIE |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
Latin |
|
| *wers- |
*warš- |
varṣman- |
|
uerruca |
"summit" |
| *pr̥sto- |
*pr̥šta- |
pr̥ṣṭhá- |
paršta |
|
"back" / "backbone" |
| *ǵeus- |
*ĵauš- |
joṣati |
zaošō |
gus-tus |
"taste" |
| *kʷsep- |
*kšap- (< *ksep) |
kṣāp |
xšap |
|
"darkness" |
| *wis- |
*wiš- |
viṣa- |
viša- |
uirus |
"poison" |
| *nisdo- |
*nižda- |
nīḍa- |
|
nidus |
"nest" |
- Before a dental occlusive, *ĉ becomes *š and *ĵ becomes *ž. *ĵʰ also becomes *ž, with aspiration of the occlusive.[10]
| PIE |
pre-PII |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
Latin |
|
| *h₂ok̂tṓ |
*oĉtṓ |
*aštā́ |
aṣṭaú |
ašta |
octo |
"eight" |
| *h₃mr̥ĝt- |
*mr̥ĵd- |
*mr̥žd- |
mr̥ḍīká- |
mərəžḍīka |
|
"wiped away" / "pardon" |
| *uĝʰtó- |
*uĵʰtó- |
*uždʰá- |
ūḍhá- |
|
uectus |
"carried" |
- The sequence *ĉs was simplified to *šš.[11]
| PIE |
pre-PII |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
Latin |
|
| *h₂ék̂s- |
*áĉs- |
*ášš- |
ákṣa- |
aši- |
axis |
"shoulder" / "axle" |
- The "second palatalization" or "law of palatals": *k *g *gʰ develop palatal allophones *č *ǰ *ǰʰ before the front vowels *i, *e.[9]
| PIE |
pre-PII |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
Latin |
|
| *kʷe |
*ke |
*ča |
ca |
ča |
-que |
"and" |
| *gʷíh₃weti |
*gíh₃weti |
*ǰī́wati |
jī́vati |
jvaiti |
uiu-ere |
"lives" |
| *gʷʰénti |
*gʰénti |
*ǰʰánti |
hánti |
jainti |
fend-ere |
"slays" |
|
| PIE |
pre-PII |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
Latin |
|
| *deh₃tór-m |
*deh₃tṓr-m |
*dātā́ram |
dātā́ram |
dātāram |
datorem |
"giver" (acc. sg.) |
- The vowels *e *o merge with *a. Similarly, *ē, *ō merge with *ā. This has the effect of giving full phonemic status to the second palatal series *č *ǰ *ǰʰ.
| PIE |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
Latin |
|
| *kʷe |
*ča (< *če) |
ca |
ča |
-que |
"and" |
| *gʷʰormó- |
*gʰarmá- |
gharmá- |
garəma- |
formus |
"heat" |
| *bʰréh₂tēr |
*bʰrā́tār |
bhrā́tā |
brātā |
frater |
"brother" |
| *wōkʷs |
*wākš |
vāk |
vāxš |
vox |
"voice" |
- In certain positions, laryngeals were vocalized to *i. This preceded the second palatalization.[13][14]
- Following a consonant, and preceding a consonant cluster
| PIE |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
Latin |
|
| *ph₂trei |
*pitrai |
pitre |
piθrai |
patri |
"father" (dative singular) |
-
- Following a consonant and word-final
| PIE |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
|
| *-medʰh₂ |
*-madʰi |
-mahi |
-madi |
(1st person plural middle ending) |
- The Indo-European laryngeals all merged into one phoneme *H, which may have been a glottal stop. This was probably contemporary with the merging of *e and *o with *a.[15]
| PIE |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
Latin |
|
| *ph₂tér |
*pHtā́ |
pitā́ |
ptā |
pater |
"father" (nominative singular) |
- According to Lubotsky's Law, *H disappeared when followed by a voiced nonaspirated stop and another consonant:[16]
| PIE |
PII |
Sanskrit |
Avestan |
|
| *bʰeh₂g- |
*bʰag- ( < *bʰaHg- ) |
bʰag- |
baxša |
"distribute" |
Subsequent sound changes
Among the sound changes from Proto-Indo-Iranian to Indo-Aryan is the loss of the voiced sibilant *z, among those to Iranian is the de-aspiration of the PIE voiced aspirates.
Proto-Indo-European and Indo-Iranian Phonological Correspondences[17]
| PIE |
OInd/VS |
Av |
PIE |
OInd/VS |
Av |
| *p |
> |
p |
p |
*ph̥₂tḗr "father" |
pitā́ "father" |
pitar- "father" |
| *b |
> |
b |
b |
*bél- "strong" |
bálam "strength" |
— |
| *bʰ |
> |
bh |
b |
*bʰréh₂tēr "brother" |
bhrā́tār- "brother" |
brātar- "brother |
| *t |
> |
t |
t |
*tuHóm "thou" |
tuvám "thou" |
tvəm "thou" |
| *d |
> |
d |
d |
*dóru "wood" |
dā́ru "wood" |
dāru- "wood" |
| *dʰ |
> |
dh |
d |
*dʰoHnéh₂- "grain" |
dhānā́- "grain" |
dāna- "grain" |
| *ḱ |
> |
ś |
s |
*déḱm̥ "ten" |
dáśa "ten" |
dasa "ten" |
| *ǵ |
> |
j |
z |
*ǵónu "knee" |
jā́nu "knee" |
zānu- "knee" |
| *ǵʰ |
> |
h |
z |
*ǵʰimós "cold" |
himá- "cold, frost" |
zəmaka- "winterstorm" |
| *k |
> |
k ~ c |
x ~ č |
*kruh₂rós "bloody" |
krūrá- "bloody" |
xrūra- "bloody" |
| *téket "may he run" |
— |
tačat̰ "may he run" |
| *g |
> |
g ~ j |
g ~ ǰ |
*h₂éuges- "strength" |
ójas- "strength" |
aoǰah "strength" |
| *h₂ugrós "strong" |
ugrá- "strong" |
ugra- "strong" |
| *gʰ |
> |
gh ~ h |
g ~ ǰ |
*dl̥Hgʰós "long" |
dīrghá- "long" |
darəga- "long" |
| *dleHgʰistos "longest" |
— |
draǰišta- "longest" |
| *kʷ |
> |
k ~ c |
k ~ č |
*kʷós "who" |
káḥ "who" |
kō "who" |
| *kʷe "and" |
ca "and" |
́ča "and" |
| *gʷ |
> |
g ~ j |
g ~ ǰ |
*gʷou- "cow" |
gav- "cow" |
gau- "cow" |
| *gʷih₃wós "alive" |
jīvá- "alive" |
OPer: ǰīva- "living" |
| *gʷʰ |
> |
gh ~ h |
g ~ ǰ |
*gʷʰnénti "strike" (pl.) |
ghnánti "strike" (pl.) |
— |
| *gʷʰénti "strikes" |
hánti "strikes" |
ǰainti "strikes" |
| *s |
> |
s |
s ~ h |
*septm̥ "seven" |
saptá "seven" |
hapta "seven" |
| *h₁ésti "is" |
ásti "is" |
asti "is" |
| *y |
> |
y |
y |
*yugóm "yoke" |
yugam "yoke" |
yuga- "yoke" |
| *w |
> |
v |
v |
*wéǵʰeti "drives, rides" |
váhati "drives" |
vazaiti "travels" |
| *m |
> |
m |
m |
*méh₂tēr "mother" |
mātár- "mother" |
mātar- "mother" |
| *n |
> |
n |
n |
*nós "us" |
nas "us" |
nō "us" |
| *l |
> |
l ~ r |
r |
*kʷeleti "moves" |
carati "moves" |
caraiti "moves" |
| *r |
> |
r |
r |
*bʰréh₂tēr "brother" |
bhrā́tār- "brother" |
brātar- "brother |
| *n̥ |
> |
a |
a |
*n̥- "un-" |
a- "un-" |
a- "un-" |
| *m̥ |
> |
a |
a |
*ḱm̥tóm "hundred" |
śatám "hundred" |
satəm "hundred" |
| *l̥ |
> |
r̥ |
ərər |
*wĺ̥kʷos "wolf" |
vŕ̥ka- "wolf" |
vəhrka- "wolf" |
| *r̥ |
> |
r̥ |
ərər |
*ḱŕ̥d- "heart" |
hŕ̥d- "heart" |
zərəd- "heart" |
| *i |
> |
i |
i |
*linékʷti "leaves" |
riṇákti "leaves" |
irinaxti "releases" |
| *e |
> |
a |
a |
*déḱm̥ "ten" |
dáśa "ten" |
dasa "ten" |
| *ē |
> |
ā |
ā |
*h₂nḗr "man" |
nā "man" |
nā "man" |
| *a |
> |
a |
a |
*h₂éǵeti "drives" |
ájati "drives" |
azaiti "drives" |
| *ā |
> |
ā |
ā |
*méh₂tēr "mother" |
mātā́ "mother" |
mātar- "mother" |
| *o |
> |
a ~ ā |
a ~ ā |
*ǵómbʰos "tooth, peg" |
jā́mbha- "tooth, tusk" |
— |
| *ǵónu "knee" |
jānu "knee" |
zānu- "knee" |
| *ō |
> |
ā |
ā |
*dʰoHnéh₂- "grain" |
dhānā́- "grain" |
dāna- "grain" |
| *u |
> |
u |
u |
*yugóm "yoke" |
yugám "yoke" |
yuga- "yoke" |
| *ū |
> |
ū |
ū |
*mū́s "mouse" |
mū́ṣ- "mouse" |
NPer mūs "mouse" |
| *h₁ |
> |
∅ |
∅ |
*h₁ésti "is" |
ásti "is" |
asti "is" |
| *h₂ |
> |
∅ |
∅ |
*h₂ŕ̥tḱos "bear" |
ŕ̥kṣa- "bear" |
arəša- "bear" |
| *h₃ |
> |
∅ |
∅ |
*h₃ókʷs(i) "eye" |
ákṣi "eye" |
aši "eye" |
| *h₄ |
> |
∅ |
∅ |
*h₄órǵʰis "testicle" |
— |
ərəzi- "testicle" |
| Proto-Indo-Iranian |
Old Iranian (OP, Av) |
Old Indic/Vedic Sanskrit |
| *aĉwa- ("horse") |
Av, OP aspa |
aśva |
| *bʰag- |
OP baj- (bāji; "tribute") |
bhag- (bhaga) |
| *bʰrātr- ("brother") |
OP brātar |
bhrātṛ |
| *bʰūmī ("earth", "land") |
OP būmi |
bhūmī |
| *martya ("mortal, "man") |
OP martya |
martya |
| *māsa ("moon") |
OP māha |
māsa |
| *wāsara ("early") |
OP vāhara ("spring") |
vāsara ("morning") |
| *ṛta ("truth") |
Av aša, OP arta |
ṛta |
| *draugʰ- ("falsehood") |
Av druj, OP draug- |
druh- |
| *sauma "pressed (juice)" |
Av haoma |
soma |
See also
References
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Bibliography
- Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
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- Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
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- Alexander Lubotsky, "The Indo-Iranian substratum" in Early Contacts between Uralic and Indo-European, ed. Carpelan et al., Helsinki (2001).
- Asko Parpola, 'The formation of the Aryan branch of Indo-European', in Blench and Spriggs (eds), Archaeology and Language III, London and New York (1999).
- ↑ The Global Prehistory of Human Migration by Peter Bellwood, Immanuel Ness
- ↑ Burrow, pp. 78-79
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
- ↑ Beekes (1988), p. 50
- ↑ Beekes, p. 55
- ↑ Burrow, pp. 74-75
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Fortson, p. 182
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 Fortson, p. 181
- ↑ Burrow, p. 91
- ↑ Burrow, pp. 92-94
- ↑ Fortson, p. 183
- ↑ Beekes, pp, 85-86
- ↑ Lubotsky, p. 53
- ↑ get ref
- ↑ Beekes, pp. 88-89
- ↑ "Indo-Iranian Languages." Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Ed. J.P. Mallory and D.Q. Adams. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997. pp. 305.
